随着古老的千年关闭,从心理学的行为角度转变为认知观点(Goodwin,2004年),也就是说,从严格依靠经验来源到知识的认识来接受理性作为知识来源的转变。在新千年的头十年中,心理学正在扮演另一种新外观,或者也许只是回到了那里。心理学,实际上是整个社会,都在拥抱灵性,接受信仰是曾经成为曾经的合法知识来源。媒体充满了直觉和信仰(Malcolm Gladwell的书籍眨眼,最畅销的书籍,证明了直觉思维的受欢迎程度),从而使我们想起了这种非经验知识来源。信息技术的进步,例如互联网和24小时新闻网络,使所有人都可以访问其所有形式的心理学。心理学的全球化增加反映在最近版的DSM(诊断和统计手册)中,现在承认,精神健康从业人员在诊断和治疗精神疾病时应该意识到文化问题。
Four trends in psychology that have carried over into the new century: neuroscience, evolution, computers, and fragmentation. This research paper includes a discussion of these four trends and concludes with a discussion of the future of psychology by examining the applications of psychology in the world today.
心理学趋势
神经科学
The American Psychological Association (APA) declared the 1990s the “Decade of the Brain.” An acceleration of neuroscience research marked the 1990s. For example, researchers discovered that well over half of the human genes are devoted to brain-related functions and those genes can influence a range of behaviors. Brain scans had long shown the structure of the brain. Crude neuroscience techniques of the past (such as ablation) had indicated which “areas” of the brain were responsible for which behaviors. The major recent advance, however, is the ability to scan the brain while the participant performs complex tasks. This technique reveals much more precisely which areas control which behaviors. At the turn of the century, a multidisciplinary initiative was formed (including the APA) creating the “Decade of Behavior” to bring social and behavioral science into the mainstream. This initiative was founded under the assumption that though an understanding of the brain is critical, it is ultimately human behaviors that are at the root of all accomplishments, problems, and solutions.
除了在学术领域的认可外,人们对神经科学研究在私人领域的重要性以及涉及大脑功能的文章的重要性越来越多,在杂志和新闻中经常出现。没有有线新闻网络报告的一些新的神经科学发展,很少有一周的时间。此外,Allen Brain Atlas(2006)被创建为所有人免费获得,由慈善家保罗·艾伦(Paul Allen)完全捐款。之所以创建该项目是因为私人公民意识到有必要获得个人研究人员可以比较遗传模式的全面资源。
在几乎是奥威尔式的发展中,似乎大脑的MRI扫描至少可以预测一些心理特征。高度聪明的孩子的大脑以独特的模式发展。尽管这种模式非常复杂,但高度聪明的孩子的模式绝对与平均智力的儿童有所不同(Haier等,1995; Shaw等,2006)。由于这种不同的模式,应该(至少在理论上)“预测”一个未出生的孩子的智慧。多年来,已经报道了人格,气质,异常行为和其他认知功能的大脑差异,并且很快就会发现更多。显然,在这一领域需要进行严肃的道德讨论,尤其是在预测的潜力中。如果事先知道一个人的潜力,为什么要浪费无法从中受益的人浪费宝贵的资源?同样,如果可以通过大脑扫描来评估个人暴力的潜力,社会是否应该阻止这种“潜在”暴力发生?毫不奇怪,最近的热门电影少数群体报告提出了这种情况,在该报告中,可以在犯罪发生之前预测犯罪,并因尚未犯下的罪行而被捕。神经科学可能是允许心理学最终超越社会科学领域的途径,在社会科学领域,预测是概率的,并进入了自然科学领域,预测更像是绝对的。 Rather than merely predicting the behavior of the “average” individual, neuroscience may someday allow us to predict the behavior of a specific individual.
进化
自成立以来,进化论已被编织成心理学史。询问“什么”,“为什么”和“如何”心理生活的心理学结构学院,被功能主义者取代,他们纳入了进化思维,以询问心理生活的“什么”(Hergenhahn,2005)。在1960年代,心理生物学领域(目前称为进化心理学)为了解释利他的行为,改变了进化思维背后的基本驱动力,从“优胜者生存”的概念(暗示该特征使个人能够能够使个人能够允许个人survive and reproduce would be passed on) and replaced it with the propagation of an individual’s genetic material (which could be enhanced by ensuring that ones with similar genetics survive and reproduce).
A recent cover story in Time magazine asks, “What makes us different?” and refers to those characteristics that separate us from other animals, namely chimpanzees (Lemonick & Dorfman, 2006). The human genome project was launched in 1986, and a preliminary count reveals only about 30,000 genes in the entire human genome. Of these 30,000 genes, we appear to share about 99 percent with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), our nearest ancestor. Similarly, as of this writing, work is in progress to reveal the genome of Neanderthal man (Homo sapien Neandertalis). It is expected that we will share even more genes than we do with the chimpanzee. Full understanding of the human genome should reveal important insights into behavioral, mental, and physical illnesses. Early applications include the ability to screen for predispositions for certain disorders, such as breast cancer. Such “predictions” have opened other ethical debates that are being played out in medicine today. For example, if a woman’s genetic testing reveals a predisposition for breast cancer, should she have a radical mastectomy just to be safe? Taken further, if genetic testing reveals predispositions for any number of illnesses (or cognitive impairments) in a fetus, should the fetus be given a chance?
电脑
从信息处理方法到1960年代的记忆,再到1980年代的语言模型,再到当今人工智能和神经网络领域,计算机一直在影响我们对思维和研究思维及其过程的思考方式。但是,研究人员之间达成了共识,目前的计算机技术非常非常快,由于当前的串行处理极限,其真正模仿人脑的能力受到限制。在设计真正的并行处理系统之前,人工智能领域将永远保持人工。用唐纳德·霍夫曼(Donald Hoffman,1998)的话说:“您可以购买击败大师但还不能购买击败蹒跚学步的愿景的视觉机的国际象棋机器”(第xiiip。xiii)。
计算机还通过其在研究中的角色来塑造心理学。例如,计算机化的测试项目可以比过去更具标准化和更好的研究控制。此外,统计软件程序使研究人员能够建立可能丢失的复杂统计关系。
分散
19世纪的“绅士科学家”的日子已经一去不复返了。过去一个世纪的趋势,心理学变得越来越分散(专业化),似乎持续到未来。APA目前有54个部门,不可避免地要遵循,每个部门都有自己的一小部分心理学专业。我们发现,心理学领域中的研究人员可能属于一个非常特定的社会,例如儿童发展研究协会(SRCD),该学会使用了非常专业的术语,而这些术语对于在不同心理学领域进行研究的人无法识别。一个领域的研究人员几乎无法跟上其研究世界中特定切片的进步。人类非常复杂,几乎不可能与其他任何一个孤立地理解心理学领域。但是,令人鼓舞的是,跨学科合作量增加(尤其是心理学,生物学和计算机科学之间)的证据令人鼓舞。学术心理学家通常不再被完全识别为心理学家。心理学家的书架可能充满了人类学家,语言学家,经济学家,古生物学家等书籍。有人认为,B。F。Skinner也许是心理学领域的最后一个完全可识别的人物。
未来
像所有科学一样,心理学必须最终产生有用的知识,这些知识可以使整个社会受益。心理学的有用性和公众接受一直在上升。我们已经看到,越来越多的心理学研究和思想合并到21世纪生活的主流中。公众几乎没有理解它甚至是心理学,将心理学应用于我们日常生活的几乎所有方面。将心理学研究融入主流的一种特别巧妙的融合会使B. F. Skinner感到非常自豪,这是他们自己的渔民价格宝座,这是一种厕所训练的椅子,使用音乐来增强成功的消除。同样,《新闻周刊》最近发表了一篇题为“如何阅读面孔”的文章,讨论了一个新兴的新领域,称为社会神经科学(Underwood,2006年)。本文中最有趣的部分也许是“心理学”一词甚至没有被提及一次!让人想起乔治·米勒(George Miller)在他的APA总统演讲中的热情洋溢的请求,我们将心理学放弃了,看来心理学的成功可能导致其作为单独的学科及其与主流思维的融合。在较高的部分中,我们简要介绍了心理学(以及它创建的研究工具)的一些领域,从而产生了很大的影响。
心理学和观点
消费者行为
The foremost name in the history of psychology related to consumer behavior is John Watson (Goodwin, 2004). Watson was credited with implementing classical conditioning principles at the J. Walter Thompson Advertising Agency that he originally developed with Rosalie Rayner while studying Baby Albert. Today we are constantly bombarded with new products (CS) being paired with people or places (US) that have positive feelings (UR) associated with them. Through constant bombardment (acquisition), the companies hope that the presence of the new product (CS) will eventually come to elicit positive feelings (CR).
When it comes to the development of new products, no successful company would even attempt to market a new product without testing it. The research techniques of polling and focus groups come directly out of psychological research. The availability of mass audiences via the Internet and e-mail makes this type of work faster and cheaper (though not necessarily better).
Politics
政治战略家采用了投票和焦点小组的心理工具,并创建了一种新的艺术形式。有时,看来是由政治家创造的图像比实际说或所做的事情更重要(尤其是在热门政治运动中)。候选人计划首先向焦点小组展示的一切,以查找如何影响人们对候选人的看法。涉及微型播放的新技术使政治战略家可以更精确地预测每个家庭可能会投票的候选人。然后将这些知识用于集中的“淘汰投票”努力。
心理学and the Legal System
在法律领域,心理原则的存在并不是新闻。精神错乱的防御是任何领域中心理原则的首次应用之一。However, newer developments, such as the rash of “recovered memory” trials in the 1990s, bring to light the basic notion of the legal system—namely, that the words that come out of a witness’s mouth (for either the defense or the prosecution) are supposed to be a valid reflection of reality.
在最近的电影《失控的陪审团》中强调的一个奇怪的转折中,我们提醒我们,在考虑审判结果时,情况的真相并不重要。在电影中,心理学家被雇用来确保从潜在陪审员群中选出的陪审团成员对起诉或辩护表示同情,如局势所规定。诸如此类的情况提醒我们,作为心理学家,我们必须保持远远超出患者机密性的高道德标准。
心理学for Prediction and Assessment in Education and Industry
Beginning with the first large-scale use of psychological tests by Yerkes and his colleagues during World War I to test draftees’ intellectual functioning (the modern ASVAB [Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery] is a testament to the ongoing efforts in this vein), employers and academic institutions have been employing psychological tests at an ever greater pace. Despite protests concerning the “fairness” of aptitude tests (such as the SAT, ACT, or GRE in higher education), they continue to remain useful and valid predictors of job and academic success. Other predictive uses of psychological testing, including the uses of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), are also plagued with questions of validity and fairness (as well as proper administration). It is likely that psychological tests will have their largest future impact in the area of assessment. More and more, employers and educational institutions want “proof that both new and accepted techniques are working. Proper implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, the largest change in education in a generation, requires assessment techniques in order to determine which schools reach their goals. Such developments guarantee the future of psychological assessment techniques.
治疗
在治疗中,几代人已经酿造了变化。传统的心理分析治疗师现在是少数,他们的排名被认知治疗师所掩盖。认知方法的治疗方法通过使患者负责自己的康复能力,尽管当然只能将其应用于一定范围的疾病。
同样,谁提供治疗的人也发生了变化。近年来,医学成本飙升,健康管理组织(HMO)的兴起带来了“更便宜”的心理保健。曾经由精神科医生主导的疗法现在由心理学家和治疗师以及神职人员的医生和成员实践。同样,从个人疗法转向小组疗法也很明显。精神卫生保健向“便宜”方法和提供者的转变已允许大部分人群获得精神保健服务,而不是过去的可能性。随着这些转变,HMO驱动的成本效率还有进一步的问题,即处方特权。传统上,只有精神科医生才被允许开药,但现在也有了向允许这些特权提供给有执照的临床心理学家的转变(目前路易斯安那州和新墨西哥州授予临床心理学家处方特权,但其他几个州在制造方面有法律,)。
Summary
In the fast-paced world of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, in which economic decisions are made based on the “bottom line,” it seems inevitable (i.e., the zeitgeist is right) that Francis Bacon’s (1620/1994) notions at the beginning of the scientific revolution should come full circle. “Human knowledge and human power meet in one; for where the cause is not known the effect cannot be produced” (p. 43). All fields of science, in order to continue to exist, must provide useful information. As seen in the mission statement of the APA (2006), “The objects of the American Psychological Association shall be to advance psychology as a science and profession and as a means of promoting health, education, and human welfare.” Perhaps psychology is finally starting to grow up enough to prove its usefulness.
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