Although ubiquitous in life, stress is rather difficult to define. Stress reactivity is a dynamic process involving context-dependent, interactive factors subject to personal interpretation that dictate subsequent individual response patterns. Stress is an extremely influential element of any engagement in sport or exercise participation. The present entry provides an overview of stress. It discusses each individual stage of the stress process (while giving particular emphasis to the critical role of cognition and appraisal) and explores the evolution of key theories addressing the effects of stress on all performance with an especial eye to sporting pursuits.
概述
尽管压力的普遍性及其对所有人类绩效的明显影响,但对其基本本质的全面理解仍然难以捉摸。多十年来,一般心理学和运动心理学(SP)的研究都无法完全解释为什么压力为某些人的杰出身体成就提供动力,同时使他人衰弱,无论他们的准备水平如何。尽管对适当的操作定义进行了持续的辩论,但已经取得了很多进展,以回答为什么人类在压力的反应中如此巨大,尤其是在体育领域中。查尔斯·斯皮尔伯格(Charles Spielberger)提供了对这种现象的最明确解释之一。
Spielberger设想了关于压力过程的三阶段概念。第一阶段是由压力源的存在构成的。第二,评估在多大程度上表示压力源代表威胁;最后,第三个包括国家焦虑症(SA)的水平,该水平是由于压力源在多大程度上被认为是威胁的程度。斯皮尔伯格随后提出,运动员(重新)的动作模式取决于这种诱发的焦虑水平。这些阶段中的每个阶段都在更详细地进行检查。
Stressors
压力源是构成客观身体或心理威胁的条件。由于压力是一种生物心理社会现象,因此压力源可以从这些生物学,心理或社会因素中出现。生物压力源是测试运动员生理适应性的人。关键的生理压力源是人体经历的适应性,作为与运动和运动参与相关的体育活动(PA)的结果(即肺部和心脏效率,骨骼肌发育)。身体外部的生物压力源的例子包括极端温度,强烈的噪音,高度高度等。另一方面,心理压力源对表演者的认知能力产生最深远的影响。精神疲劳(精疲力尽),忧虑(遇到令人不安的思想)和竞争性焦虑(解释竞争情况为威胁的偏爱)构成了通常经历的心理压力形式。社会压力源是运动员认为体育社区或整个社会对他们施加的压力。受到社会压力的运动员可能会遇到身体形象问题,受伤后重返训练或竞争的压力(恢复时间不足)以及教练,培训师,队友,支持者,不切实际的期望(例如,追求完美),或他们的国家(在国际精英阶段)。 There are stressors that impact the athlete via all three channels such as overtraining—a phenomenon whereby the volume and intensity of an individual’s exercise surpass the person’s ability to recover (physically and psychologically) that then consequently hinders their progress (causing great concern in the athlete and support staff).
但是,要记住,这些所谓的压力源中的每一个都有诱导运动员变化的潜力。除了非常极端的环境压力外,压力源几乎独立于其起源,只有在运动员的情况下才会产生效果感知压力很大或威胁。以下一节解决了评估在应力反应性中的关键作用。
评估的重要性
除非首次进行评估,否则通常不会发生压力反应。环境和运动员本人都在不断存在许多潜在的压力源。只有当一个这样的压力源或几个被解释为对运动员的目标实现的威胁时,才会触发压力反应。
这种认知评估不仅至关重要,因为它启动了压力过程,而且评估也至关重要,因为它调节了压力反应的严重性。因此,对压力源是否“强调”的判断是否(以及什么程度)决定了运动员内几个客观和主观状态的反应性,这会立即影响性能。
Such changes are referred to as SA, the emotional reaction to an immediate, specific perceived threat (thus subject to fluctuations over time). SA is not to be confused with特质焦虑(TA),将刺激视为危险的较稳定,基于人格的趋势(或频率)。但是,随着较高的TA导致SA的升高,TA确实介导了SA水平,一些运动员认为这是成功表现的障碍。SA是压力反应的最终产物,其对运动员的客观和主观状态的影响将接下来解释。
Induced Anxiety (Experience of Threat)
客观和主观变化
在压力事件中,整个运动员的生理系统都会发生重大客观变化。典型的身体反应包括汗水,呼吸(R)速度,肌肉张力,瞳孔扩张,心率(HR)和血压(BP)高程以及食物消耗和消化率的降低。
SA的主观反应包括情绪(或感觉)和认知。传统的情绪反应包括紧张,忧虑,恐惧和紧张。这些情感反应中的每一个都是基于对人自己准备的主观评估,以应对局势的压力,并且知道无法执行的知识将导致厌恶结果。
压力反应产生的思想本质上是不利或不愉快的,最常见的是不安,并担心这种不良结果会通过。以下部分介绍了许多理论,这些理论是如何共同影响运动活动的许多理论。
Theories of Stress and Performance
关于压力和表现的几种运动特定理论已从更一般的心理理论演变出来。在这里,我们将依次讨论后一种主要观点。但是,每个理论都以自己的方式定义了压力,这是可以理解的,因为它们被建立了几十年。认识到数十年的研究的汇编,我们从理查德·拉撒路(Richard Lazarus)描述的压力过程开始。
Lazarus’s explicitly stated prerequisites necessary for an accurate model (that agree with Spielberger’s in many respects) are that stress is (a) a dynamic process that is (b) iterative and interdependent in nature, (c) composed of unique interactions between an individual athlete and the environment, and is (d) dependent on the athlete’s appraisal of said environment and his or her ability to cope with the potential demands imposed and perceived. To explain these effects on performance, three explicit theories are considered.
Yerkes–Dodson Inverted-U Hypothesis
In the earliest of the three theories, Robert Yerkes and John Dodson proposed in 1908 that superior performance occurs when stress levels are moderate, but as arousal levels reached extremes (i.e., too high—hyperexcitement or too low—boredom), learning capacity deteriorates in a symmetrical and increasingly drastic fashion. Graphically, such a relationship resembles an inverted-U form (hence the theory’s enduring name). However, inspection of Yerkes and Dodson’s original data reveals many inconsistencies, indicating that the range of arousal deemed “moderate” and therefore optimal is fairly small.
最初提出的倒立假设在试图预测性能结果时最重要的是,最重要的是有很多不足之处。此外,尝试使用Yerkes和Dodson的理论解释过去的表现,这使人们推断出,当表现较差时,表演者要么太引起或不足以引起,但实际上并非如此。
最佳功能模型的单个区域
Yuri Hanin attempted to take the idea of optimal functioning a step further by stating that the most advantageous state of arousal is not necessarily “moderate” but in fact differs across individuals. Yuri Hanin’s individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model holds that performance is successful when initial stress levels are within an optimal zone, which is specific to that individual athlete. If the athlete’s stress level falls outside his or her personal range, performance degrades. In contrast to the Yerkes–Dodson inverted-U hypothesis, which implies that stress levels should be ubiquitously moderate for optimal performance, Hanin’s model does not specify what level is ideal. The optimal level (whether high, moderate, or low) depends solely on the individual performer.
The Dynamic Adaptability Model
彼得·A·汉考克(Peter A. Hancock)和J. S.温暖的动态适应性模型整合并综合了上述理论的各个方面。就像斯皮尔伯格(Spielberger)的概念化一样,该理论建立在三位一体的压力上,即输入,适应,和output.Input encapsulates the physical sources of stress in the environment. Adaptation consists of physiological and psychological adaptations to this input and so reflects the appraisal process. Output denotes the change in goal-directed response efficiency. In sport, this latter selection would represent efficiency on any particular task-related performance. When represented graphically, the dynamic adaptability model resembles an extended-U shape, which retains the inverted-U notion that performance deteriorates quickly at the extremes of stress. However, here there is also an optimum range between the extremes, which yields a successful plateau of stable performance. The extended-U also incorporates the IZOF model’s view that the optimum range is based on the individualistic nature of each performer. Hancock and Warm’s theory further contends that the extent of the optimum range not only is subject to the athlete’s physical and psychological capacities for adaptation to stress but is also crucially contingent upon the recognition that the task itself is the major proximal source of stress. Collectively, these conceptions serve to describe stress reactivity and provide a theoretical and quantitative basis to understand how athletes respond to the stresses that their sports impose upon them.
参考:
- Gill,D。L.(1994)。运动和运动心理学的观点。Quest, 46,20–27.
- Hancock,P。A.和Ganey,H。C. N.(2003)。从倒立到扩展-U:心理学定律的演变。Journal of Human Performance in Extreme Environments, 7(1),5-14。
- Hancock,P。A.和Warm,J。S.(1989)。压力和持续关注的动态模型。Human Factors, 31,519–537.
- Hanin,Y。L.(2007)。情绪和运动表现:最佳功能模型的单个区域。在D. Smith&M。Bar-Eli(编辑)中,体育和运动心理学的基本读物(第55–73页)。伊利诺伊州香槟:人类动力学。
- Spielberger, C. D. (1989). Stress and anxiety in sports. In D. Hackfort & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.),Anxiety in sports: An international perspective(pp. 3–20).New York: Hemisphere.