混血儿一词是指出生的个人,父母都是不同的种族背景。例如,非洲裔美国母亲和亚裔美国人父亲的孩子被认为是混血儿。同样,一个有一个白人父母和一位美国原住民父母的人也将被视为混血儿。用来描述两个或多个种族的个体的多种族一词包括混血儿一词。一个多种族个体的一个例子是有白人,美洲原住民和非裔美国人的父母。
重要的是要注意,种族和种族之间的区别是复杂的,有时在美国社会中引起了争议。目前,美国人口普查认为西班牙裔是种族而不是种族类别。因此,例如,一个有一个拉丁裔/父母和一位白人父母的人不会被认为是混血儿,尽管他或她可能觉得自己或她的文化背景混杂。许多社会科学家认为种族是一种社会结构,这一事实使这一事实变得复杂,种族组是基于历史分类而不是人之间的真正遗传差异。多民族一词是指多种种族背景的个人,有时更喜欢描述混合遗产的个人,因为种族是一个更广泛的术语,表示特定文化群体的成员之间的共同身份和血统。但是,多民族一词也将描述日本和中国血统的人,这种经历将与更传统的多种族(例如日本和白人)经历不同。
It is also important to recognize that many individuals who fit the definition of biracial may not choose to use this term to describe themselves. They might elect to identify with only one side of their racial background (opting for a monoracial identity) or use other terminology such as mixed. Indeed, individuals of mixed racial background have various options of self-identification that are based on demographic background, familial influences, skin color, and other cultural experiences.
历史观点
多年来,混血儿的人数有所增加,特别是随着异族关系的增加和废除抗菌(种族混合)法律的增加。可以追溯到18世纪初,抗活菌法试图通过限制混血儿的诞生来维持美国白人血统的纯度。这样的规范遵循低衰变或“单滴规则”的规则,即使是最小的种族混合也消除了个人合法地识别为白人的可能性。尽管几个世纪以来,美国历史上已经注意到了异族关系的后代,但直到民权运动和废除反合法律的后代,美国政府才被敦促正式承认并赋予许多参与异族关系的成年人的平等自由以及那些与种族背景不同的人。
除了暗示混血儿和混合种族关系的法律和文化规范外,政府传统上还以某种方式限制了混合种族遗产的人如何识别自己的方式。在1790年的首次全国人口普查与2000年十年年度人口普查之间的210年范围内,个人必须将自己确定为仅属于一个种族群体。然而,有时是为了追踪非洲/白人遗产混合的个人而做出的努力。在1890年的国家人口普查中,Mulatto被定义为三到八分之八的黑色。四分之一的黑色是四分之一的黑色,一个八月是八分之一的黑色。这些定义仅适用于黑/白混蛋组合,并被1900年的下一次人口普查所消除,因为它们几乎没有理性的理由或公共支持。在1900年至2000年之间,没有做出努力来区分混合种族遗产的人,分类趋势又回到了使用“单滴规则”来确定谁可以也不能识别为白人的人。任何具有“一滴”非白血的人都必须在合法地与她或他的种族背景的非白人部分合法地认同,从而强调纯度在白人血统中的重要性。
2000年的美国人口普查标志着历史上第一次,允许受访者指出他们的自我分类以上的一场比赛。这种具有里程碑意义的变化使混血儿和多种族个体能够承认自己的背景。估计有680万,占美国人口的2.4%,选择了多个种族。然而,没有争议的这种修改并没有达到传统的人口普查格式,因为许多民权组织都认为属于多个种族的个人是对其政治实力的潜在威胁。然而,这一变化似乎标志着一种文化转变,该转变允许混血或多种族背景的个人表达其遗产的全部范围,而不是人为地将其置于特定的少数群体中。这种新的分类选择,以及过去30年中异族婚姻的合法化,导致了研究人员所说的混血儿繁荣。确实,人们对媒体以及学术领域中种族混合背景的个人的知名度和认识都提高。预计混血儿人口将继续增长,反过来,辅导员和心理学家将与更多的混合遗产与更多的青年和成年人接触。
混血身份发展模型
Researchers and clinicians across many areas of psychology have worked to understand the process by which individuals of mixed racial heritage develop conceptualizations of themselves and their racial identity. The primary effort in this area has been the development of models to identify and examine how biracial individuals create personal and racial identity. These models have changed over time, paralleling changes in historical and sociopolitical perspectives regarding biracial individuals in the United States, as well as increased research about biracial development.
对混血儿发展的最早描述是埃弗里特·斯通奎斯特(Everett Stonequist)的边缘人模特。1937年,斯通奎斯特(Stonequist)写道,混血儿的个人是与两个不同世界有关的人,但从未真正属于这两个世界。斯通奎斯特认为,混合种族遗产会通过与人与特定的社会,种族或族裔识别的能力造成混乱来使正常的身份发展变得复杂。对身份的这种负面描述是多年来的主要理解来源,直到引入模型将混血儿的发展描述为病理程度较小,并且通过一系列不同的阶段继续进行,可以解释各种身份结果。
The first of the stage models of racial identity was a 1971 model by William E. Cross, Jr., which focused on Black racial identity. Although not specific to individuals of mixed heritage, Cross’s model was highly influential to subsequent models of biracial identity development. In his model, Cross saw racial identity development occurring across a series of distinct stages. Soon, many authors were producing models of biracial development that portrayed biracial individuals as going through a series of distinct, linear, developmental stages throughout their life span. James Jacobs, another contributor to the body of literature about stage models, saw biracial individuals as first noticing racial and ethnic differences between people, then understanding what personal meaning these differences held, and finally synthesizing these meanings to become an individual of combined heritage. Similarly, George Kich saw biracial individuals first becoming aware of statuses of differentness, then personally struggling for acceptance, and finally accepting a biracial identity.
许多舞台模型虽然与Stonequist对混血儿身份的首次描述有很大不同,但仍然坚持这样的前提,即混血儿的发展本质上会比单种族发展更加困难或健康。W. S. Carlos Poston的五阶段混血儿身份发展模型开始转移。Poston的模型表明,混血儿在五个阶段进行进展:(1)对个人身份的认识;(2)选择特定组分类;(3)不得不选择一个可能不完全适合混血儿的身份的召集或否认;(4)感谢拥有更广泛,多种种族身份;(5)将所有不同身份的整合到一个统一的自我中。该模型是第一个为混血儿提供积极结果的模式之一,它通过结合了混血儿可以产生健康,综合的种族认同感的想法。
直到最近,这些模型的局限性变得明显,阶段模型主导了关于混血儿身份发展的文献。阶段模型的一个问题是,新的研究表明,混血儿的身份发展可能不会以线性方式进行或对所有个人均匀进行。此外,许多舞台模型未能意识到环境影响(例如早期生活经历,家庭环境,文化和生活的其他显着方面)可能会影响混血儿的身份发展的重要性。这些局限性导致许多研究人员倡导更复杂,流畅和多方面的发展模型,这些模型突出了特定文化和环境环境中的混血儿身份。
玛丽亚·鲁特(Maria Root)的生态身份模型是一种旨在纳入对混血儿身份的上下文影响的最新模型。该模型强调了可能影响个人种族身份的无数影响,包括历史,地理位置,家庭,外表,性别,社会经济地位和性取向等。Root的模型还表明,混血儿的身份发展有几种结果,而没有声称这些结果将以特定的顺序发生,甚至不一定发生在所有混血儿中。The five identity outcomes in Root’s model are (1) acceptance of ascribed identity as labeled by others, (2) identification with dual racial or ethnic groups, (3) personal identification with a single racial group, (4) identification with a new group, such as biracial, or (5) adoption of a symbolic race or ethnicity by taking more pride with or placing more emphasis on one side of the individual’s race. According to Root’s model, biracial individuals may elect any of these outcomes at various points in their lives, depending on personal experiences and contextual influences.
Changes in basic understanding and conceptualization of biracial individuals across both the scientific community and the culture of the United States are largely reflected by changes in models of biracial identity development. Understanding of biracial identity started by society initially viewing biracial existence as inherently problematic and maladaptive out of the belief that biracial individuals could never wholly identify with, or fit into, a larger racial group. This perception has changed over time to eventually conclude that biracial individuals may form a cohesive identity, but to do so these individuals would have to go through universal and concrete steps before forming a positive identity. Finally, modern perspectives are reflected in current identity models, which identify the roles that external ecological forces play in the lives of biracial individuals and the fluid process of identity.
混血儿的心理功能
Researchers have studied biracial children, adolescents, and adults to better understand their psychological functioning. Psychologists have been interested in whether early descriptions of biracial individuals as confused and marginalized were accurate and how biracial identity develops in different situations. These studies have highlighted the influence of historical and societal perspectives on race and how these can affect the well-being of biracial individuals. One of the most common findings relates to the experience of discrimination, based on being biracial, and the negative effects of stereotypes. Biracial individuals often describe experiences of discrimination, particularly those involving physical appearance, that took place during their childhood and even as adults. Furthermore, stereotypes about biracial individuals as confused and unhealthy contribute to widespread assumptions that being of mixed race is problematic. Other stereotypes, particularly of biracial women, include perceptions of exotic and sexualized behavior. Like stereotypes of any other groups, these generalizations can be internalized and negatively affect biracial individuals and can also contribute to discrimination targeted toward them.
研究还表明,混合种族遗产可能会遇到混血儿青年。一个例子是发展个人身份。尽管所有青少年都随着自己的身份感而成长和挣扎,但多种族青少年也必须整合一个由于其复杂性并且由于它不适合刚性,单种种类而成为独特的种族身份的各个方面。尽管多种族不一定会预测青年和青少年的负面影响,但研究表明,多种族青年面临的共同挑战,例如压力(来自家庭或社会中的其他人),以认同另一个种族。例如,一名非裔美国人/白人女性可能会说服父母从父母身上认同她的非裔美国人背景,尽管她对白人同龄人有更多的认同,他们也可能会拒绝她。家庭或同龄人的拒绝可能会导致身份混乱和内在的负面刻板印象。
Whereas early research and theory focused on the negative aspects of mixed heritage individuals, recent research has highlighted strengths and positive aspects of biracial identity. Researchers have recognized that biracial individuals have the opportunity to be exposed to more cultural traditions and languages and may develop increased respect and appreciation of their parents’ cultures. In addition, some studies have noted that biracial individuals have more positive attitudes toward other groups of different races than do those of monoracial backgrounds, highlighting the utility of being exposed to multiple cultures.
定性研究还阐明了混血儿的积极方面。在一些研究中,混血儿成年人指出,他们生活的各种情况都面临着挑战,尤其是当他们成长时,但总的来说,他们对自己的混合种族感到自豪。此外,其中许多人在面临各种挑战(例如歧视和偏见)时表现出韧性和积极的应对策略。综上所述,有许多优势在混血儿中有助于积极和健康的心理功能,预计研究人员将继续阐明这些资产和资源,因为他们努力了解混血儿的复杂性。
Counseling Biracial Individuals
与混合种族的个人以及有关身份发展和心理功能的当前研究所拥有的挑战和优势,与混血儿一起工作的临床医生应意识到挑战和优势。重要的是要记住,混血儿可能不会向种族认同作为其主要关注的咨询。但是,他们的身份可能会影响他们可能引起治疗的其他各种呈现问题。因此,对于临床医生而言,探索种族和种族在客户生活中的意义很重要,以更好地了解其重要性和作用。
Clinicians working with biracial individuals are also encouraged to remember that identity development may not be linear and that each person may not pass through the same set of stages or changes. Although it is expected and likely that an individual will grapple with identity factors during adolescence, for example, it also is possible for individuals to revisit various identity issues throughout life, depending on personal and contextual factors. For example, a biracial college student who grew up in a diverse community may find herself moving to a less diverse city where her university is located. At this new setting she may find that she is confronted with challenges regarding how others perceive her identity and understand ethnicity. She may find that she revisits issues related to her racial background and may work to redefine herself in this new context.
Though there is some research to suggest that having an integrated identity may be helpful and adaptive for individuals of mixed race, it is not necessarily the only healthy or functional identity outcome for everyone. Indeed, many individuals may choose to identify as monoracial and still experience well-being and healthy psychological functioning. Clinicians should be aware of the multiple options for identification that exist for an individual and should not assume that choosing a biracial label is the only marker of positive psychological functioning.
最后,由于混血症的身份可能受到许多背景因素的影响,因此临床医生了解客户的环境及其影响客户身份的方式很重要。Root的身份生态模型是一个有用的框架,用于识别客户上下文的各个方面,这些方面可能在其身份选择中起作用,例如地理位置或物理外观。还鼓励临床医生探索其他人如何看待客户(公众或归属身份)之间的区别,以及客户如何看待自己(个人或私人身份)。了解这些身份的融合或分歧程度,以及对客户福祉的影响,可以帮助您深入了解客户的身份。
多种族家庭
异族关系是两个人之间形成的关系,他们的种族背景彼此不同。在浪漫关系中,有两个具有不同种族遗产的人通常被确定为异族夫妇。2000年美国人口普查简介报告说,在美国境内的5000万次婚姻中估计有246,000个黑白工会。尽管黑白工会在美国境内的异族婚姻百分比主导着,但异族关系不仅限于这两个种族背景。其他例子包括亚洲女性和一名非洲裔美国男性,拉丁裔男性和白人女性,以及美国原住民男性和非裔美国人女性。尽管异族关系仍然与反对派相遇,但历史和社会的变化导致人们对选择与不同种族的个人进行浪漫活动的年轻一代更加接受。
尽管接受了这种接受,但异族夫妇可能会面临同一种族夫妇未遇到的其他问题。异族夫妇有时会遭受社会以及自己家庭的敌意,如果亲戚不接受这种关系,则可能会被排除在家庭之外。负面的刻板印象和关于混血儿后代的神话也可能导致对选择与自己不同的伴侣的成年人的负面态度。此外,夫妻文化价值观的潜在差异可能会加剧异族关系的挑战。这些文化价值将影响关系的各个方面,例如性别角色和伴侣,沟通方式和育儿方式的期望等。
研究人员讨论了与多种族家庭的父母和子女一起使用的各种咨询干预措施。对于辅导员来说,重要的是要检查他们对异族婚姻以及混血或多种族个体的个人观点和偏见,以免将这些偏见带入治疗关系中。尤其是青少年可能需要受到非判断立场的人的支持,他们不根据刻板印象归因于判断。例如,对于这些年轻人,书目疗法,阅读与他们的混血经历相似的经历可能是一种有用的干预措施。此外,帮助客户向其他家庭成员传达问题或关注点,对客户接受自己的接受至关重要。混合种族遗产的孩子可能会质疑为什么他们的外表与父母的外表不同。父母可以与孩子交流一个适当的标签,以便为家人考虑,以便孩子们面对这个问题:“你是什么?”临床医生还可以为父母和家庭提供心理教育,因为他们试图了解拥有混合家庭的经历以及他们可能面临的独特问题。
未来的研究
Psychologists have noted that research about biracial individuals is still in the early stages of development but is definitely growing. With the increasing numbers of biracial individuals and clients in the United States, it is expected that researchers will continue to explore issues of identity, psychological functioning, and counseling interventions with these populations over the next years. There are several areas for future research that will further the field and expand our understanding of biracial individuals. One area includes conducting studies that explore more diverse samples. Past research has focused primarily on biracial individuals of Black and White heritage, but little research exists with combinations of other races. To understand the common experiences faced by all biracial individuals, as well as the unique issues related to those of specific racial combinations (e.g., Native American-Black), more research is needed.
进一步研究的另一个领域与用于研究混血问题的方法有关。过去的大多数研究都依赖定性研究,尽管这提供了有用的模型和框架,但该领域有望开始研究具有较大人群的混血儿体验,以识别可以推广的发现。实际上,可以通过定性研究开发的许多身份发展模型可以通过大型混血个体样本进行测试。此外,研究人员可以考虑利用混合方法研究,将定性和定量方法结合起来,以解释随着时间的流逝而变化的身份发展过程。
Another area for further research is the exploration of issues related to multiple identities. It is clear that being biracial is only one aspect of any individual’s identity, as every person also represents diversity with respect to gender, age, sexual orientation, disability, and other aspects of culture. To have a comprehensive understanding of the experiences and background of any individual, it is critical to understand the complexity of identity and how various aspects of culture interact. Some researchers have begun to explore biracial lesbians, for example, in an effort to understand the experience of being of mixed race, female, and attracted to the same sex. Continued research about multiple identities will further the field in understanding the complexity of biracial identity and psychological functioning.
References:
- 多民族美国人协会:http://amea.site/
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- 马文基金会:http://www.mavinfoundation.org/index.html
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